A medical, legal, and
informational resource
for persons dealing with
traumatic brain injury.

LATEST MEDICAL RESEARCH

Updated: 16 May 2008

COMMON PILL AIDS TBI RECOVERY

Progesterone, a component of birth control pills, has been shown to improve the neurological outcome for patients with severe head injuries according to The Journal of Critical Care. A Chinese study treated similarly injured patients for three to six months after severe brain injury and significantly more patients given Progesterone had favorable outcomes. Exactly how the compound works is not yet fully understood, but its wide adoption in emergency rooms across the United States should occur quickly.

NEW IMAGING STUDY SHOWS MILD TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), which can be done on an MRI scanner with special software, has been shown to show structural changes in the white matter of the brain even in patients with mild traumatic brain injury. Dr. Marilyn Kraus noted "even in patients with mild TBI - those identified as having minimal or no loss of consciousness - there were structural deficits." Thirty-seven TBI patients underwent the imaging study as well as neuropsychological testing to evaluate memory, attention and executive functioning. Researches found that the structural changes in the white matter correlated to the observable cognitive deficits related to thinking, memory and attention.

STEM CELLS REPAIR TBI

Scientist in many parts of the world are looking towards stem cells to help repair brain damage from TBI. The limited capacity of self repair for the brain following TBI requires cellular transplantation of stem cells to replace those lost in trauma. Cellular transplantation has begun to be evaluated in several models with animals with promising results.

Because this treatment has not yet been approved in the United States for humans, several doctors and companies have been set up in other countries, in which the patients with TBI can receive stem cells through intravenous transfusion. (The company Medra working out of the Soviet Union, Germany and the Dominican Republic has significant anecdotal success with patients but they are still fighting a battle to be accepted by the medical community).

There appears to be some basis for this treatment in The Journal of Neurosurgery (Mahmood A. 2004), it was shown that marrow cell transplantation after traumatic injury showed increased cellular growth in rats. In another study in the Henry Ford Health Center in Detroit, intravenous bone marrow stromal self therapy reduced "apoptosis" and promoted cell growth in rat brains. "Apoptosis" is a method by which brain cells die after trauma. These and other studies give great hope that bone marrow or fetal stem cell transfusion holds great promise.

-----------------------------------------------

PROOF OF MILD TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY IN MICE
Because it is unethical to produce traumatic brain injury in humans, many of the most cutting edge experiments are done on mice. Although this is unfortunate, studies show that mild traumatic brain injury, when induced in mice, shows signs of apoptotic cell death in the brain.“"Apoptotic cell death" is a fancy word for programed cell death. All of the cells in our body have the ability to regulate their population, if needed. In addition to this internal balance in the body, it has been discovered that traumatic brain injury can give rise to disregulation of brain chemicals, and can thus lead to apoptotic cell death in brain cells. This study at the University of Pennsylvania found objective signs of apoptotic cell death following mild traumatic brain injury to rats. Findings of this occur as a result of mild traumatic brain injury helps explain why in some cases mild traumatic brain injury has long standing and profound effects.

A second study on mice published in the Journal of Neurotrauma showed mice with induced mild traumatic brain injury suffered long lasting cognitive defects, emotional difficulties and behavioral disturbances. Again, the prejudice against those who complain of ongoing symptoms after mild traumatic brain injury is increasingly misplaced. These studies show not only objective signs of brain injury after a mild trauma but show that long term symptomology is shown in mice similar to those reported in humans with post concussive syndrome.

BRAIN REPAIR AFTER ALCOHOL DAMAGE
MRI scans used to measure the volume of the brains of alcoholics has shown hopeful evidence that brain volume showed an increase of 2% in size, 38 days after stopping the intake of alcohol. The study also showed better performance on tests. Thus, the long known symptom of chronic alcohol abuse, namely a reduction in brain volume (mild to moderate brain atrophy) can be somewhat reduced in a recovering alcoholic.

FOOTBALL STUDY CONSISTENT WITH CAR ACCIDENTS
Researchers outfitted college football players helmets with devices to measure the speed, direction and force at which their heads were struck during a game. Surprisingly, the data failed to predict which hit would or did cause a concussion or brain injury.

This is consistent with the real world, wherein it is difficult to determine who might walk away from a trauma without a brain injury and who might suffer an injury. Factors such as the positioning of the head, the exact line of force, heredity and other unknown variables all must come into play. Some individuals can simply have an increased susceptibility to traumatic brain injury, for reasons we do not fully understand.

DEPRESSION IN NFL PLAYERS TIED TO CONCUSSION
A study by the University of North Carolina, in a health survey of over 2500 retired NFL players, showed that 20% of those who reported sustaining three or more concussions on the football field suffered from depression. That was three times the rate of players who did not sustain concussions. While the findings are consistent with previous research on elevated depression rates on those having suffered a TBI, the NFL and some experts have attacked the study as being inconclusive. Further studies are upcoming.

CENTER FOR DISEASE CONTROL DEFINITION OF MILD TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY
The Center for Disease Control (CDC) in 2003 published the following:

Recommended definitions for mild traumatic brain injury.

Incident cases of MTBI

The conceptual definition of MTBI is an injury to the head as a result of blunt trauma or acceleration or deceleration forces that result in one or more of the following conditions:

Any period of observed or self reported:

• transient confusion, disorientation, or impaired consciousness;
• dysfunction of memory around the time of injury;
• loss of consciousness lasting less than 30 minutes.

Observed signs of neurological or neuropsychological dysfunction, such as:

• seizures acutely following injury to the head;
• symptoms among older children and adults such as headache, dizziness, irritability, fatigue or poor concentration, when identified soon after injury, can be used to support he diagnosis of mild TBI, but cannot be used to make the diagnosis in the absence of loss of consciousness or altered consciousness. Research may provide additional guidance in this area.

MEMORY/PROBLEM SOLVING CONTINUE TO IMPROVE AFTER TBI
In a study (Hammond FM et al., 2004) patients who had suffered TBI were tested between the years one and five post injury. The greatest amount of improvement noted was observed in memory and problem solving (34%) which was higher than previous studies had indicated.

The greatest amount of decline was observed for social interaction, which was consistent with previous studies.

These results are more hopeful for victims of TBI that the previous idea that little, if any, cognitive recovery occurs after one or two years post injury.

AMBIEN WAKES COMA PATIENTS
Several instances of partial or significant recovery from coma or vegetative state have been published in the last year, which were caused by the administration of Ambien. The commonly prescribed sleeping pill (Zolpiden) was featured in a BBC documentary aired in October 2007, entitled “The Waking Pill.

It is thought that Ambien may activate receptions in the brain which are usually reserved for the neuro-transmitter gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA). Researchers believe that brain injury may alter GABA receptors, causing regions of the brain to remain dormant. They speculate that Ambien could possibly temporarily reverse this change.

Several patients have undergone PET scans to show the increase level of activity in the brain following the administration of Ambien, and such activity was indeed shown.

MILD BRAIN INJURY AND SLEEP PROBLEMS
It has long been established that brain injury can cause profound disruptions in sleep which have a significant negative impact on patients. Half the patients in this study were found to have a delayed sleep phase syndrome.”Problems included falling asleep, waking up and irregular sleep patterns.

This study, along with previous studies, points to sleep difficulties as one of the under appreciated and understudied aspects of traumatic brain injury.

PROGESTERONE: Treatment for Severe TBI.
The female sex hormone progesterone has been successfully used to treat severe traumatic brain injury, as recorded in the Annals of Emergency Medicine. A hundred patients with blunt traumatic brain injury showed a higher survival rate in those patients who were treated with intravenous progesterone within the first thirty (30) days after injury.

EXTRAORDINARY HOPE FOR SEVERE BRAIN INJURY
In a landmark study published in the Journal, Nature, doctors described reviving a patient in a minimally aware coma by implanting tiny electrodes in the brain. Scientist believe that the process, which is now used in Parkinson’s patients, amplifies the electrical activity of the diminished injured brain resulting in increased awareness and function. The man could only say yes or no, however; after therapy, with the new system, was able to repeat the Pledge of Allegiance and is much more fully aware. This provides possible hope to the 100,000 to 300,000 minimally conscious patients now in the U. S., most of whom are in nursing homes. The doctors caution that those with more severe brain damage may not see such dramatic results. People interested in this procedure should search for facilities that advertise "deep brain stimulation for Parkinson’s rehabilitation."

WARNINGS ABOUT OBESITY SURGERY
Doctors warn that Bariatric surgery (shortening of the intestines to prevent obesity) can result in Wernicke's Encephalopathy, which is caused by a thiamine's deficiency or lack of Vitamin B1. Patients were urged that if they showed symptoms of confusion or poor coordination to seek immediate help and get injections of thiamine as early as possible.

COCOA COULD IMPROVE BRAIN FUNCTION
Several recent studies suggest that some types of cocoa contain substances that could enhance blood flow in the brain and improve brain function. Although it is a little distressing that the conference at which this breakthrough was discussed was sponsored by Mars Incorporated, the candy maker, it did point to compounds known as Flavanois as to their ability to keep the brain healthy and prevent cognitive decline and dementia. Scientist in England believe that drinks containing this compound could be used to treat vascular impairments in the brain. After consumption of the liquid, it was noted that there was increased blood flow to the gray matter for two to three hours.

FEMALE HORMONE SAVES TBI LIVES
Promising new treatment for severe brain injury has emerged in a recent Atlanta study. 77 patients were given the female hormone, Progestin (which is a steroid and also protects brain cells but has no effects on males from hormone stand point). The percentage of patients who died which were not given the Progestin was 30% and only 13% of those given a Progestin died from a head injury. Follow-up studies are underway and they hold great promise.

MIGRAINE UPDATE
Studies linking the onset of migraines to certain food such as chocolate, red wine, and aged cheese have not proved to be related. In a recent study, 90 of 100 people were self-diagnosed sinus headaches were found to have migraines. They feel most “sinus” headaches are really migraines. Things that actually caused or aggravated migraines included positive or negative stress, weather changes, estrogen withdrawal, fatigue and sleep disturbances, as well as overuse of over the counter pain medication.

DEPRESSION IS A COMMON LONG-TERM OR EVEN LIFETIME PROBLEM THAT OFTEN FOLLOWS TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY
Earlier studies have shown that persons with traumatic brain injury induced depression are more difficult to treat than those with other types of depression. A couple of studies published in the archives of general psychiatry show promise in treating 18 chronically depressed men and women with a drug Ketamine is not yet approved for depression and is commonly used as an animal tranquilizer. It is doubtful Ketamine will be able to be prescribed for depression for at least a year or two but please consult you treating physician.

OUTCOME 3 TO 5 YEARS AFTER MODERATE TO SEVERE TBI
Investigators (Dikmen, SS 2003) followed persons with moderate to severe TBI for three to five years noting the degree of recovery. Unfortunately, significant functional limitations were observed in all areas. In 65% of cases, there was recovery to pre-injury levels in personal care, 40% recovered in regard to cognitive competency, major activity, leisure and recreation. How long the patient was unconscious appeared to contribute to the outcome more than damage seen on MRI.

EFFECTS OF AGING ON TBI RECOVERY
Researches at the Mayo Clinic (Testa JA et al. 2005) confirmed again what was previously known - that age adversely affects recovery from TBI. Findings show that older patients with TBI have a greater likelihood of becoming physically and financially dependent on others. Older TBI patients were more likely to have changes in employment status compared with younger patients. An earlier study had compared TBI patients over 60 ,and limited to patients with only mild TBI, they showed the same improvement and functional status as the patients under 60. Therefore, the age difference appears to be more significant as the injury goes from mild into the moderate and severe categories.

LONG TERM OUTCOME FOLLOWING MILD TBI
Patients, on an average of 8 years post TBI, most in the mild range, were given follow-up neuropsychological testing and compared with normals than those who were in motor vehicle accident without TBI. Those who suffered the mild TBI continued, an average of 8 years later, to have problems with aspects of attention and working memory. The study’s conclusion was that it showed “that MTBI can have adverse long-term neuropsychological outcomes on subtle aspects of complex attention and working memory.

FATIGUE AND MILD TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY
Although fatigue is one of the most reported symptoms after TBI, there have not been many studies on its effects. A group in the Netherlands (Stuleneijer, M et al. 2006), studies approximately 300 patients with MTBI found that one-third of the patients experienced severe fatigue six months after injury and that the type of fatigue is associated with limitations in daily functioning. Severe fatigue was highly associated with the experience of other symptoms and limitation and did not stand alone.

LONGER AMNESIA PREDICTS MORE BRAIN ATROPHY
Post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) has long been used as a predictor of outcome in those with TBI. A recent study (Wilde, EA, Bigler, ED et al. 2006) showed that a correlation between the duration of PTA in the existence of atrophy of brain tissue following an accident exists. The longer the period of PTA the higher the rate of brain tissue atrophy following an injury.

RELIEF FROM CHRONIC PAIN?
Persons suffering from intractable chronic pain have found relief in monitoring their own brain waves on a functional MRI scanner. After some training, the volunteers were able to make changes in the way their brains processed the pain signals and reported feeling less pain. The Stanford University study physicians caution that much is yet to be done but a company called Omneuron is trying to develop the equipment for commercial use.

CURE FOR COCAINE HABIT?
Because many who suffer traumatic brain injury can develop addiction problems, a recent finding could provide some help. Cocaine addicts, who were hospitalized, were given a supplement known as NAC (N-acetylcysteine), which appear to lessen the desire for the drug. MRI’s taken of the patient’s brain saw a difference associated with the supplement.

MOLECULAR DAMAGE FROM TBI ONGOING FOR YEARS
In a recent paper further evidence of secondary or delayed cell death following TBI was shown. The diffuse and wide spread damage is progressive and prolonged for months or years after the initial insult. Areas continued to be vulnerable to such ongoing destruction are the cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, striatum and subcortical nuclei.

DEPRESSION AND TBI
Several recent studies continue to solidify the relationship between depression and traumatic brain injury. A multicenter study (Seel RT 2003) showed that patients with TBI are at "great" risk for developing depressive symptoms. Unemployment and poverty may be substantial risk factors in the development of depressive symptoms. A study tracking the psychiatric illnesses following TBI (Fann JR 2004) found that 34% of those with mild TBI had a high initial and ongoing risk of persistent psychiatric illnesses.

PEDIATRIC TBI EQUALS WORSE OUTCOME
An experiment, with one-week old rats who sustained TBI, has clearly shown that the trauma triggered cell death (apoptosis) in the brains of the very young rats was far greater than those in older rats. These results help explain the unfavorable outcomes of very young pediatric head trauma patients and outlines again the importance of trying to prevent secondary cell death following head trauma.

SPECT SCAN VALIDATED IN TBI
SPECT scanning of the brain, which has received increasing recognition in the past five years, has again shown to be sensitive to TBI. In a variation known as Proton Magnetic Residence Spectroscopy (1 H-MRS) the relationship of brain chemicals in the brain following trauma, which are now seen to be markers for diffuse axonal injury. The levels of chemicals have a significant correlation with the functional status of the patient. Thus, localized 1H-MRS has the potential to be used for detecting diffuse axonal injury (DAI) in TBI patients and can be useful as a guide to future rehabilitation.

EARLY SYMPTOMS OF TBI LINKED TO OUTCOME
Mild traumatic brain injury patient's symptoms were used to predict severity of post traumatic complaints six-months after injury. It was found that the patients complaining of headache, dizziness, or nausea at the emergency room after mild traumatic brain injury strongly associate with the severity of symptoms six-months after. Patients at the emergency room without headache, dizziness, nausea did much better at six-months following injury than those who had these complaints (R deKra 2002)

WATCH YOUR PITUITARY
Pituitary gland function and levels of growth hormone can be adversely affected by TBI. A recent study (Aimaretti, G. 2004) suggest that careful screening of the pituitary function should occur following TBI. Keeping these systems in chemical balance will speed TBI recovery.

MAGNETIC FIELDS MAY REDUCE DEPRESSION FOLLOWING TBI
Many patients have depression following brain injury which does not respond to antidepressant drugs. The authors of the study contend that there may be subclinical, partial complex seizure activity which continues for months or years after "recovery." Four patients who had such an injury showed significant improvement of depression after having burst-firing magnetic fields across their temporal lobe once a week for five weeks. (Baker-Price L.A. 1996).

NEW WAY OF DETECTING HEARING LOSS
Because many persons with traumatic brain injury are in a coma or otherwise unable to communicate their problems, it is often a bit difficult to determine if hearing loss is part of the injury. A recent study (Lew H. L. 2004) showed encouraging results by having the individual undergo brain stem auditory evoked potential. They follow this test up with CT scan of the bilateral temporal bones. Use of these two test may prove valuable in ruling out hearing loss in those with severe TBI.

EXERCISE HELPS
It has been found that treadmill activity, forced limb movement, and other physical activities help promote brain plasticity (ability to repair). A pattern of exercise before an injury promotes a defense against cell death. It is thought that in the chronic stages after brain injury, an exercise program might reactivate mechanism of healing and thus it is recommended to keep victims as physically active as possible. In a related study, recreational therapy was found to improve rehabilitation.

NEW VACCINE
Trauma induced brain injury can possibly be reduced, post-accident, by giving the patient a vaccination of Cop-1, a synthetic co-polymer used to treat MS. Such a vaccine may be available soon, and would be ideal for use at trauma centers and emergency room facilities. Do not expect this vaccination until, at least, 2005.

NEW WONDER DRUG?
Mifepristone, also known as the abortion pill, may have a wonderful side effect in that it protects brain cells. Experiments in mice have shown that the drug extends the life of neurons and protects against the cellular destruction which occurs in traumatic brain injury and for other reasons in a process called apoptosis.

BETTER NEUROLOGICAL OUTCOME
Trial studies of the drug, dexanabinol, briefly conducted in cases of severe head injury. Patients treated with the drug had increased positive blood flow after injury without dangerously low blood pressure. Overall the patients treated with the drug had faster and better neurologic outcome.

MAGNETIZATION TRANSFER RATIO (MTR)
Research into new MRIs have shown promise into showing, more sensitively, brain damage due to trauma. The type of MRI known as Magnetization Transfer Ratio (MTR) has shown to be effective in detecting abnormalities in the white matter of the brain following trauma. These abnormalities were looked at in the splenium of the corpus callosum in the brain stem. (Sinson, G. 2002).

PROMISING NEW DRUG
Researchers at the University of Florida are working toward a treatment to curtail the secondary cell death which follows severe brain trauma. Early signs show that administration of the common chemotherapy drug Cyclosporin A, within 12 hours of injury interrupts the chain of events that can lead to the worsening of brain injury in the first day or two following trauma. Tests on animals show great promise in reducing swelling and regulation of calcium induced damage.

SAY NO TO HERBAL REMEDIES
The use of herbal supplements is common in the U.S. However, following a brain injury, remedies such as St. Johns Wort and Ginko Giloba, SHOULD BE AVOIDED. Studies show that they may induce mania in TBI patients. If you feel that you must take supplements, make sure you clear them with your doctor, especially if taken in conjunction with prescription medication. (Spinella M., 2002)

MRI USED FOR DIAGNOSIS OF MENTAL ILLNESS
Several hospital centers across the U.S. are beginning to use MRI (MRS) to diagnose mental illness such as depression and panic disorder. Changes in metabolic activity can clearly correlate with certain disorders. For example, evidence of bipolar disorder in the frontal lobes can be seen and changes associated with ADD in children, can be gleaned through changes in brain volume.

DRUG FOR SEVERE BRAIN INJURY
A recent study confirmed the safety and usefulness of intravenous dexanabinol (HU-211), in cases of severe head injury. Patients experienced excellent control of intra-cranial pressure, a common deadly side effect of brain injury. Patients on HU-211, also experienced faster and better neurologic outcome. (Knoller N., 2002)

Long Term Depression with TBI
A long term follow-up study on head injured veterans reported in the archives of general psychiatry showed that concussions and other head injuries in early adulthood may significantly raise the risk of depression decades later. This is consistent with earlier studies that show that head injured patients may be prone to depression shortly after the head injury. The study suggest that the risk of depression persists even fifty years after the injury. (Keep in mind that the study by McCallister and Flashman in 1999 concluded that 20% to 30% of mild TBI patients show major depression in the first year post injury) (T. Holsinger 2002).

QUANTITATIVE MAGNETIC RESONANCE
Dr. Erin Bigler of Brigham Young University and others are examining ways in which MRI studies can show demonstrable reductions in the volume or surface area of the brain after traumatic injury. The "atrophy" for shrinking of the brain after traumatic injury has been shown to be consistent with the aftermath of diffuse axonal injury (DAI) and focal brain injury. Following the early stages, this method of imaging the brain holds great promise in proving injury. (Bigler E. 2001)

BRAIN FOOD
The Annals of Neurology has found that creatine, a common food supplement administered to rats after traumatic brain injury, increased the repair of cortical tissue by 30% to 50%. (Sullivan P.G. 2000)

TREATMENT FOUND NOT EFFECTIVE
The New England Journal of Medicine in February 2001, reported that a hopeful therapy for brain injury, hypothermia, was not shown to be effective in reducing residual brain injury symptoms, as previously thought.

REHABILITATION HOPE
The Journal of Brain Injury recently reported that patients in the slow-to-recover subset of severe TBI, may benefit from longer trials of rehabilitation, with functional recovery continuing to improve months or years after injury. (Grey D.S. 2000)

CHILDREN AT GREATER RISK
The French study further confirmed that the "Kennard Principal" (that recovery from injury is greater in children that adults) appears to be false, especially in diffuse injuries. They recommended that final assessment of childhood outcome for TBI should be done only after several years. (Laurent-Bannier A. 2000)

DRIVING PROBLEMS
A study in Norway found that post injury TBI patients, had a highly increased percentage of involvement in driving accidents and recommended special assessment for driving post injury. (Mosberg A. 2000)

REHABILITATION
In a study of paid attendant care to victims of TBI, the main benefit was found to be that of friendship to the victim, and the study recommended further training to stress this important component of care. (McCluskey A. 2000)

PTSD
A study from this year in the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders found the rate of Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome in cases of severe traumatic brain injury to be 27% and recommended rehabilitation efforts to take this into account.

LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS
The study of brain injured athletes showed no relevant distinction in the outcome between athletes who loss consciousness and those who did not at the time of injury. (Lovell M.R. 1999)

CHILDREN MORE AT RISK
A study in rats showed that neuro-degeneration after trauma was worse in immature verses mature individuals, and cited as the cause Apoptotic Degeneration.

CELLULAR DAMAGE
In the studies that support the findings supporting the use of MRS, protein markers consistent with traumatic brain injury were found in injured patients and was consistent with the follow-up outcome of neuropsychological testing. (Ingebrigtsen T. 1999)

CELLULAR DAMAGE
Secondary damage after traumatic brain injury via lipid peroxidation (LPO) was found in patients within twenty-fours hours post injury. Treatment with natural or synthetic antioxidants was recommended. (Sutkovoi 1999)

HOPE FOR EPILEPSY
Wide spread use of nerve stimulators in patients with severe epilepsy have shown in 66% of patients a good to moderate reduction in reducing seizures. Patients undergo a one to two hour surgery to implant a stop-watch size device in the chest. The procedure, covered by most insurance, costs approximately $20,000.00.

LEAD POISONING FINDINGS
The recent study showed that blood lead concentrations much lower than previously thought, were associated with declines in cognitive and academic skills. Decreases in performance occurred in children having a blood level less than 5 micrograms per deciliter (ug/dL). These finding would indicate that the current blood level concentration cut off of 10 ug/dL is incorrect and would have to be lowered. (Lanphear 2000)

TINNITUS IMAGING
Ringing in the ears (Tinnitus) is a common and often terrible symptom of brain injury. Previously, there was no test to objectively determine the existence or non existence of this complaint. However, a recent study indicates that changes in the inner ear leading to Tinnitus may be detectable on MRI imaging of the ear. (Meriot 2001)

IMAGING IMPROVED
MRI imaging technology continues to be refined and improved. Adding magnetization transfer imaging (MTI) and contour plot analysis to MRI studies greatly adds to the sensitivity of the imaging in detecting signs of traumatic brain injury (McCowan J.C. 2000)

SURPRISING STATISTIC
There are apparently far more visits to the emergency room in the United States for traumatic brain injury than previously thought. A re-analysis of data from the calender year 1995 to 1996, showed one million visits, much higher than previously thought. (Guerrero 2000)

CHILDHOOD INJURY
A long term follow-up of victims of childhood brain injury showed continuing vocational problems at age 21. Again showing that children are not more immune to brain injury than adults. (Nybo 1999)

SLEEP DISORDERS
This study, among others, has confirmed that there is a direct relationship between traumatic brain injury and the emergents of sleep disorders. The severity and impact of chronic sleep disorder is just now beginning to be understood, and is far more of a problem than previously thought. (Beetar 1999)

INVISIBLE INJURIES
In this older study, reconfirmed by more recent studies, 686 victims of mild traumatic brain injury were examined and found to have completely normal neurological exams. The patients then underwent imaging studies and 18% of the patients were found to have lesions in the brain. (Stein 1993)

HYPERTENSION
Contrary to what was previously thought, cognitive decline in patients suffering from diabetes and hypertension starts at middle age rather than old age. (Knopman 2001)

MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROCOPY (MRS)
Yet another study confirms the exciting possibilities of this new diagnostic tool, which measures the relationship of brain chemicals utilizing MRI. The finding of certain relationships is consistent with the diagnosis of brain injury. (Brooks W.M. 2001)